Figure 45 Continents within Pangaea
Movement of the Continents from Pangaea
The single super
continent as suggested by the Continental Drift, 145
Figure 45, has several problems.
1) What is the probability of Central America,
point A in Figure 45, unfolding and connecting
with South America at point B? (See Figure 46).
Figure
45 Continents within Pangaea
Figure
46 Central American Junction
Reprinted by permission from
National Geographic Society
2) Assuming that the continents did physically connect at point A-B, what is the probability that the two independent areas at A and B have the same general soil types and that they form a continuous mountain range? The mountains are consistent from the South American continent through the Central American area to Mexico, Figure 46. The probability of this occurring by accident is extremely low, if not nonexistent.
3) The continents would have to move in such a way that points C, D and E, Figure 45, would align to form the intercontinental bridge that exists today, Figure 47.
Figure
47 Asian Land Bridge
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
4) This continental arrangement also requires
that India move from its original position and collide with Asia.
146
Figure 48.
5) The continent of Australia must leave from its position below the tip of Africa and move in an east- northeasterly direction to its present location in the south Pacific. Figure 48
Figure
48 Pangaea Continental Movements
The above movement required for the continents to arrive at their present positions from the Pangaea super continent is represented in
Figure 49 Continental Drift 65m,yr
Figure
50 Continental Drift 135m,yr
Reprinted by permission
from "The Breakup of Pangaea,"
by R. S. Dietz, Copyright 1970
Scientific American, Inc.
Figure 48 and is also shown in Figure 49 and 50, which are reproductions from the scientific literature. 147 The literature indicates that Figures 49 and 50 represent the position of the continents at a time of 65 million years and 135 million years respectively from the initial breakup of Pangaea. If the movement was initiated by some outside force, and since the continents rest on a sphere, the movement should be in all directions, unless the force was directed south of Pangaea. In either case, the movement of the continents is inconsistent since Asia must move in a circular clockwise direction to make all the continents fit their current position. North America must move north and then west to accommodate the connection across South America while it is moving in a west-northwestly direction. If the magnetic poles experienced a reversal, this might supply the necessary force and energy to initiate the continental movement and could have initiated the north, west and east movements of the continents, but it could not account for the connection between Asia and Africa unless the African continent moved north. 148 If so, then the reasoning behind the southern tip of Africa being the center of the movement is invalid. The reversal of the earth's magnetic field, however, could account for the erratic polar wandering displayed by the alignment of the minerals to the magnetic pole.149 (See Chapter 2, Figure 8)
The Plate Tectonic Theory does not account for the early movement of the continents. It assumes that the continents moved similarly to that proposed by the Continental Drift Theory and, once they were separated, they moved as plates. The main problem is that this requires that the plates have a continually changing boundary. As the Pangaea fragmented, the fragments were not the plates as described today. One must continually add plates to the theory to accommodate the existing physical evidence. The Plate theory does describe what is observed in the current continental movement if one makes this concession of continually changing boundaries and numbers of plates. The modern scientific literature concerning the Plate Tectonic Theory considers isolated areas, such as the coast of California or the Caribbean, and the theory works quite well for the restricted areas. It appears that the Continental Drift best describes the actions and the overall movements of the land masses.
Movement of the Continents from Gottsland
The arrangement of the continents called Gottsland is shown in Figure 51.
Figure 51 Continental Arrangement of Gottsland
Figure 52 Gottsland Spin
If the center of the movement was
Israel, and as suggested by some of the authors the magnetic pole
was through the center of the movement, one can suggest a possible
mechanism for the supply of force necessary to start the continents
drifting. Figure 52 indicates that if the pole was through
or near Israel, the earth would be spinning as indicated by the
spiral lines. The earth would be spinning in its solar orbit,
but the direction of spin is dependant upon which pole is being
observed. It is assumed for this discussion that the earth is
being observed from a position above the north pole. If the pole
shifted to the north, the force would cause the super continent
to break, possibly as shown in Figure 53. The continents
would continue to drift as shown in Figure 54.
Figure
53 Gottsland Breakup
Figure 54 Continental Drift from Gottsland
Physical Data from Sea-floor Spreading Investigations
The physical data from the ocean floor verifies these movements. Figure 55 shows the physical ocean floor of the Atlantic. The sea-floor spreading discussed earlier is readily visible. The sea-floor is highly structured and the transform faults and ridges indicate that South America was connected to South Africa at some point in time. The east tip of southern Africa, when it broke free, traveled south and west. If one observes these transform faults on a globe, the fault lines lead directly to the tip of South America, indicating that the southern tip of South America was connected to the eastern tip of Africa.
Figure
55 Sea-Floor Spreading in the South Atlantic
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
As discussed earlier, there are good transform faults and ridges shown in Figure 56 that indicate that something was connected to soil and geometric matches in this area for this connection.
Figure
56 Southern Tip of Africa
Reprinted by permission
from National Geographic Society
It is assumed that the southern tip of South America broke free before the Brazilian coast drifted away from the west coast of Africa, See Figures 55 and 56. This could account for the bend and crimp in the western coast of South America. The similar fault lines shown in Figure 57 indicate that Australia was connected to the upper eastern coast of Africa and filled the Arabian sea. After Australia moved to the east, something broke free from the east coast of India and proceeded south. The fault lines lead directly to Antarctica. The fault lines encompassing the Indonesian and Philippine Islands indicate that they have broken free from the Asian continent and are proceeding southeast.
Figure
57 Antartica/Australian Movements
Reprinted by permission
from National Geographic Society
The leading edge of the continent's movement usually results in the development of ocean trenches, as discussed in Chapter 3, or mountain ranges. This can be seen from the physical world maps and has occurred on every continent. The eastern coast of Australia shows such a mountain buildup on its leading edge of movement, Figure 58.
Figure 58 Australian Mountains
Reprinted by permission from
National Geographic Society
The Indonesian Islands maps indicate both the development of ocean trenches and mountains on their leading edges. The leading edges of the continents in the Pacific, Figure 59, also show both ocean trenches and mountains on their leading edge. The direction of movement of the continents are indicated by the arrows. In most cases these leading edges of the continents are not the plate boundaries as dictated by the Plate Tectonic Theory.
Figure
59 Continental Trenches in the Pacific Ocean
Reprinted by permission
from National Geographic Society
The mountain build-up is not restricted to the leading edge of the continents movement, but can occur within the body of the continent. 152 Figure 60 displays the mountain ranges in Europe and Asia.
Figure
60 European Mountain Formations
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
The leading edges of the movement,
the northern coast of Norway, point A, has
produced a mountainous range along the entire state of Norway.
The circular movement of the continents from the middle east has
produced several areas of great stress such as shown by point
B. The internal movement has caused a rift
along the Volga River leading southwest from B and has raised
the Ural Mountains. Another stressed area starts at the Jenisej
River and results in the start of the Siberian mountains at point
C. Points D,
E and F show
similar movements. All of these stressed areas lie on spiralic
lines from the near Mideast or Israel.
Selected Area Movements
The area in the Mediterranean around Italy has a remarkable set of movements, Figure 61. Spain is moving North, putting strain on the Southern France connection. The Spanish mountains are arranged in curved lines with Gibraltar being the apparent center of the mountainous arcs.
Figure
61 Continental Movement in the
Mediterranean Sea
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
The soils of the western coast of Turkey, Point A,
actually have a better match with the western coast of Israel
and the Sinai, point B, than
with Greece, as one might assume. If one places these two coasts
together, the city of Pergamum, falls along the west coast of
Israel.
Figure 62 Movements
in the Gulf of Mexico
Reprinted by permisssion
from the National Geographic Society
The area of Yugoslavia is moving to
the northeast as indicated by the arrow and probably has caused
the Carpathian Mountains to be formed. Italy as a whole, is moving
toward the southeast, but the tip of the boot is turning toward
the northwest and the northern part of Italy is pushing north
resulting in the Alps. In effect, Italy is trying to spin. This
spin is similar to an eddy current in continuum flow environments.
If one drags a stick through a body of water, small circular eddy
currents can be observed behind the stick's movement. These same
phenomena appear to be occurring in Italy's movement. This movement
also places great strain on the ankle of the Italian boot and
could acccount for the volcanos and earthquakes of the area throughout
history. This is not an isolated case in the continental movement.
Florida was once connected to the northern gulf coast and is moving
toward the east, Figure 62. The Caribbean Islands are moving
toward the northeast as an expanding unit while Grenada and the
southern islands in the chain are also sliding to the north. The
Bahamas, moving in a westerly direction has developed the Bahamian
Trench off the coast of Florida where subduction is apparently
occurring.
Korea is another area where the peninsula is pivoting around its
continental connection in contrast to the general movement of
the leading edge of the continent, Figure 63. However,
Korea and the Caribbean are rotating counter clockwise while Italy
is rotating in a clockwise manner. This type of movement is typical
of disturbances within continuum flow environments.
Figure
63 Movements of Japan and Korea
Reprinted by permission
from National Geographic Society
Inner Continental Mountain Ranges
Another anomalous movement concerns the Tibetan Mountains north of India. These mountains have led many to believe that India was originally located at the southern tip of Africa and moved north to collide with Asia and resulted in the formation of the Himalayan Mountains, Figure 64.
Figure 64 Asian Continental
Mountain Ranges
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
But if Gottsland is the correct image of the original super continent, then this explanation is not valid. In physics, for every forward action there must be an equal reverse action. If the pole shifted to the north, then there would be a force directed to the south of almost equal strength; but the force to the south would create an almost equal force to the north. This interplay of forces would create an oscillating force that was continually decreasing. This is similar to a bouncing ball where the height for each succeeding bounce is less than the preceding one. When Australia and Antarctica broke free from the sides of India such an oscillating force field reaction would have been initiated, and this interaction could have caused the Himalayan buildup. It is interesting to note that the height of the Himalayas decreases exponentially to the south as one would expect if the initiating force was decreasing exponentially. The buildup of the Himalayas would be in direct opposition to the movement of the Asia continent as discussed earlier and shown by the red arrows in Figure 64. This continental movement was altered by the creation of the Himalayas, white arrows in Figure 64, and resulted in the movement from point A around the eastern end of the Himalayas as shown by the yellow arrows in Figure 64. This is not the only evidence of this type of mountain formation. The Arabian peninsula, shown in Figure 65, has a force field associated with its movement as indicated by the arrow.
Figure
65 Arabian Peninsula Oscillations
Reprinted by permission
from the National Geographic Society
The peninsula force field is oscillating between points A and B and has resulted in the mountainous buildup at both points. One can cover the entire globe and rationalize the formation of most mountains based on the force fields associated with the continental movement. This does not constitute proof of the mechanism, but the circumstantial evidence and the fact that it does hold in essentially all cases gives it the structure of a plausible theory.
The earth's major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates or the leading edge of the drifting continents, but some do occur in the interior of the continents and along the mid-ocean ridges,150 such as shown in Figure 66.
Figure 66 Firelines from the Americas
The Aleutian Islands' movement to the south has also resulted in earthquakes along their leading edge and at the Aleutian trench, as shown in Figure 66. The earthquakes along the California coast are generally from movement along the San Andreas fault. 151 The Baja California peninsula is swinging out into the Pacific and is continually placing greater strain on the San Andreas fault which results in the California earthquakes. Central America and North America appear to be moving faster than South America and this is placing greater stress on the central American area and has resulted in an inordinate number of severe earthquakes in Central America and Mexico as shown in Figure 66.Earthquakes are normally caused by slippage of the earth along fault lines, Figure 67.
Figure 67 Types of Faults
Reprinted by permission
from Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Volcanos are usually the result of continental subduction, Figure 68, at the leading edge of the continental movement, but both Earthquakes and volcanos do occur along the mid Atlantic ocean ridge as shown and the sea-floor spreading models have explained these phenomena. The movement of the Caribbean Islands to the north and east have created both volcanos and earthquakes all along the Caribbean chain. The leading edge of South and North American continents has been riddled with major earthquakes during this century and these quakes are probably caused by subduction, see Figure 68.
Figure
68 Ocean Trench/Volcano Formation
Reprinted by permission
from Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Australia is like a ship coming out of port, the Arabian Sea,
and the earthquake and volcanos, the fireline, makes up the wake
of this ship, Figure 69. The earthquakes and volcanos of
Japan are well documented and the resulting fireline is the leading
edge of the movement of the Asian continent into the Pacific.
The earthquakes in and north of the Himalayas is the result of
the movements as discussed above.
Figure 69 Australian - Japanese Firelines
The volcanos and . earthquakes in the Mediterranean are the results of European continent movements. The fireline southeast of the African continent is caused by the movement of the tip of South America, as discussed, the movement of Madagascar, and the developing rift as shown in Figure 70.
Figure
70 African Rift
Reprinted by permission from
Reader's Digest, Inc
The firelines are essentially all converging in the Pacific Ocean. If one takes the average speeds of the continental movement reported in the literature, it would appear that the force fields (firelines) will converge at a point near the back diameter of Israel, Figure 71.
Figure 71 Pacific Ocean Firelines
One cannot be adamant about this point because of the large variation of the reported speeds of the continental movement in the literature. However, it does indicate that the force was delivered somewhere in the Mideast. One would expect the force fields to travel evenly from the center of application and converge on the back diameter if the media was a sphere. It would be similar to dropping an object in the center of a vat of water; the ripples caused by the object hitting the water would move away from the center in circular rings. It should be the same on a sphere. Figure 72 displays a polar view of the earth's surface with the center at the southern tip of Africa as shown in a Scientific American article. The firelines are shown in red. If one moves the center of the projection to Israel, the firelines in the southeast are pulled toward the center and the firelines make an almost perfect circle. This would be in keeping with the laws of physics and reflect all of the reported data.
Figure
72 Global View of Firelines
The movement of the continents, the
formations of the mountains and the distribution of the firelines,
all indicate that the center of the initial movements was located
at or very near Israel, and that the arrangement of the initial
land mass was very similar to, if not that depicted by, Gottsland.
Cited References
145
P. M.
Hurley and J. R. Rand,
"Predrift Continental Nuclei," Science
164 (June 1969): 1229. Return
146
Sean
D. Willett, and Christopher Beaumont, "The India-Asia Collision: What Gives?"
Science News 146 (1994): 15. Return
147
Dietz, "The Breakup of Pangaea,"
78. Return
148
Sir
Edward Bullard,
"Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field," 481-524;
Jacobs, "Reversals of Earth's Magnetic Field," 625-6.
Return
149
J. C.
Briden, "Paleomagnetic
Polar Wandering," Paleogeophysics (New
York: Academic Press, 1970): 277-289; D. Strangeway, History
of the Earth's Magnetic Field (New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1970), 281.Return
150
Lynn
R. Sykes, "Seismicity
of the Mid Ocean Ridge System," The Earth's Crust and
Upper Mantle: Geophysical Monograph no. 13 (Washington
D. C.: American Geophysical Union, 1969). Return
151
Lynn
R. Sykes and Leonardo Seeber,
"Great Earthquakes and Great Asperities, San Andreas Fault,
Southern California," Geology 13 (December 1985):
835-8; Lynn
R. Sykes and Steven C. Jaume,
"Changes in State of Stress on the Southern San Andreas Fault
Resulting from the California Earthquake Sequence of April to
June 1992." Science 258 (November 1992): 1325-8. Return
152
J. Brendan
Murphy, "Mountain
Belts and the Supercontinent Cycle," Scientific American
266 (April 1992): 84 - 91; E. Orowan, "Continental Drift
and the Origin of Mountains," Science 146 (1964):
1003.Return